I need to compare two values for an if statement with the greater than equality.
if delta_t > tao_threshhold:
n = np.random.normal(0, 1)
rxn_vector = propensity*delta_t + (propensity*delta_t)**0.5*n
new_popul_num = popul_num
but I need the equality to be for much greater than. In maths the notation used is >> but this means something completely different in Python syntax.
Is there a way to express this much greater than equality in Python?
Cheers
I think the idea of "much greater than" largely depends on the use case or personal preference. To answer your question; you'll need to know "how much greater than" you want it to be:
Say I want to check if delta_t is 5 times greater than tao_threshhold; i would do something like this:
if delta_t > 5*tao_threshhold:
but again the solution to this lies in a well-defined concept of "much greater than"
As everyone is pointing out "much greater" is not a well-defined concept in mathematics/science. It is used in theoretical work to demonstrate concepts but it is open to interpretation when trying to implement the mathematical models in code.
That being said, "much greater" is often understood as "some orders of magnitudes greater" but exaclty how many is more or less up to you to define using intuition and experiments. It is also highly dependent on the units of measurement and the scaling of compared values (e.g. is there an upper bound delta_t? what values do you consider "much greater" and what values you do not? Do you have a prior knowledge or hint on how its values are distributed depending on different parameters of your algorithm?)
Practically, a way to treat it is the following:
Define some order of magniutde quantity:
E = 10e3
Implement your if statement as:
if delta_t > E*tao_threshold:
...
Be aware of precision errors: multiplying large numbers together is not safe.
If you are not sure how to choose approprite E values, you can start with the following principal:
Intuitively, your algorithm should not depend on E. So, for a given set of parameters and a chosen E value, (if your algorithm is deterministic or proven to converge to a specific value within the chosen parameters), your algorithm should show the same results for nearby E's. So you can explore different ranges of E for different sets of parameter values and search for stabilization regions. Assuming you have a scalar output and less than 3 parameters, this can be done by plotting the output. Just a point here: This is not the same as an optimization search. You want to find E values that lead to "stable" results, not "best" results.
Document everything in the code, README, documentation site, and potential technical paper. Allow the user of the code to change the selected value if needed.
Considering that tao_threshold looks like a parameter, it may be simpler just to explore different scales in that variable rather than introducing a "much greater" quantifier. But this greatly depends on the context of your algorithm and it may reduce that parameter's interpretability.
No, "much greater than" is a mathematical concept that has not made its way in to Python (or any other computer language, to my knowledge).
Compilers, both ancient and modern, can determine if one quantity is greater than another. This is a well-defined comparison. But "much greater than," while obvious on paper, does not yield a boolean (yes/no) answer.
SO I realise the question I am asking here is large and complex.
A potential solution to variences in sizes of
In all of my searching through statistical forums and posts I haven't come across a scientifically sound method of taking into account the type of data that I am encountering,
but I have thought up a (novel?) potential solutions to account perfectly (in my mind) for large and small datasets within the same model.
The proposed method involves using a genetic algorithm to alter two numbers defining a relationship between the size of the dataset making up an implied strike rate and the
percentage of the implied strike to be used, with the target of the model to maximise the homology of the number 1 in two columns of the following csv. (ultra simplified
but hopefully demonstrates the principle)
Example data
Date,PupilName,Unique class,Achieved rank,x,y,x/y,Average xy
12/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass1,1,3000,9610,0.312174818,0.08527
12/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass1,2,300,961,0.312174818,0.08527
12/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass1,3,1,3,0.333333333,0.08527
13/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass2,1,2,3,0.666666667,0.08527
13/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass2,2,0,1,0,0.08527
13/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass2,3,0,5,0,0.08527
13/12/2012,PupilName4,UniqueClass2,4,0,2,0,0.08527
13/12/2012,PupilName5,UniqueClass2,5,0,17,0,0.08527
14/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass3,1,1,2,0.5,0.08527
14/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass3,2,0,1,0,0.08527
14/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass3,3,0,5,0,0.08527
14/12/2012,PupilName4,UniqueClass3,4,0,6,0,0.08527
14/12/2012,PupilName5,UniqueClass3,5,0,12,0,0.08527
15/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass4,1,0,0,0,0.08527
15/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass4,2,1,25,0.04,0.08527
15/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass4,3,1,29,0.034482759,0.08527
15/12/2012,PupilName4,UniqueClass4,4,1,38,0.026315789,0.08527
16/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass5,1,12,24,0.5,0.08527
16/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass5,2,1,2,0.5,0.08527
16/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass5,3,13,59,0.220338983,0.08527
16/12/2012,PupilName4,UniqueClass5,4,28,359,0.077994429,0.08527
16/12/2012,PupilName5,UniqueClass5,5,0,0,0,0.08527
17/12/2012,PupilName1,UniqueClass6,1,0,0,0,0.08527
17/12/2012,PupilName2,UniqueClass6,2,2,200,0.01,0.08527
17/12/2012,PupilName3,UniqueClass6,3,2,254,0.007874016,0.08527
17/12/2012,PupilName4,UniqueClass6,4,2,278,0.007194245,0.08527
17/12/2012,PupilName5,UniqueClass6,5,1,279,0.003584229,0.08527
So I have created a tiny model dataset, which contains some good examples of where my current methods fall short and how I feel a genetic algorithm can be used to fix this. If we look in the dataset above it contains 6 unique classes the ultimate objective of the algorithm is to create as high as possible correspondence between a rank of an adjusted x/y and the achieved rank in column 3 (zero based referencing.) In uniqueclass1 we have two identical x/y values, now these are comparatively large x/y values if you compare with the average (note the average isn't calculated from this dataset) but it would be common sense to expect that the 3000/9610 is more significant and therefore more likely to have an achieved rank of 1 than the 300/961. So what I want to do is make an adjusted x/y to overcome these differences in dataset sizes using a logarithmic growth relationship defined by the equation:
adjusted xy = ((1-exp(-y*α)) * x/y)) + ((1-(1-exp(-y*α)))*Average xy)
Where α is the only dynamic number
If I can explain my logic a little and open myself up to (hopefully) constructive criticsm. This graph below shows is an exponential growth relationship between size of the data set and the % of x/y contributing to the adjusted x/y. Essentially what the above equation says is as the dataset gets larger the percentage of the original x/y used in the adjusted x/y gets larger. Whatever percentage is left is made up by the average xy. Could hypothetically be 75% x/y and 25% average xy for 300/961 and 95%/5% for 3000/9610 creating an adjusted x/y which clearly demonstrates
For help with understanding the lowering of α would produce the following relationship where by a larger dataset would be requred to achieve the same "% of xy contributed"
Conversly increasing α would produce the following relationship where by a smaller dataset would be requred to achieve the same "% of xy contributed"
So I have explained my logic. I am also open to code snippets to help me overcome the problem. I have plans to make a multitude of genetic/evolutionary algorithms in the future and could really use a working example to pick apart and play with in order to help my understanding of how to utilise such abilities of python. If additional detail is required or further clarification about the problem or methods please do ask, I really want to be able to solve this problem and future problems of this nature.
So after much discussion about the methods available to overcome the problem presented here I have come to the conclusion that he best method would be a genetic algorithm to iterate α in order to maximise the homology/correspondance between a rank of an adjusted x/y and the achieved rank in column 3. It would be greatly greatly appreciated if anyone be able to help in that department?
So to clarify, this post is no longer a discussion about methodology
I am hoping someone can help me produce a genetic algorithm to maximise the homology between the results of the equation
adjusted xy = ((1-exp(-y*α)) * x/y)) + ((1-(1-exp(-y*α)))*Average xy)
Where adjusted xy applies to each row of the csv. Maximising homology could be achieved by minimising the difference between the rank of the adjusted xy (where the rank is by each Unique class only) and Achieved rank.
Minimising this value would maximise the homology and essentially solve the problem presented to me of different size datasets. If any more information is required please ask, I check this post about 20 times a day at the moment so should reply rather promptly. Many thanks SMNALLY.
The problem you are facing sounds to me like "Bias Variance Dilemna" from a general point of view. In a nutshell, a more precise model favours variance (sensitivity to change in a single training set), a more general model favours bias (model works for many training sets)
May I suggest not to focus on GA but look at Instance Base Learning and advanced regression techniques. The Andrew moore page at CMU is a good entry point.
And particularly those slides.
[EDIT]
After a second reading, here is my second understanding:
You have a set of example data with two related attributes X and Y.
You do not want X/Y to dominate when Y is small, (considered as less representative).
As a consequence you want to "weigth" the examples with a adapted value adjusted_xy .
You want adjusted_xy to be related to a third attribute R (rank). Related such as,per class, adjusted_xy is sorted like R.
To do so you suggest to put it as an optimization problem, searching for PARAMS of a given function F(X,Y,PARAMS)= adjusted_xy .
With the constraint that D=Distance( achieved rank for this class, rank of adjusted_xy for this class ) is minimal.
Your question, at least for me, is in the field of attribute selection/attribute adaptation. (I guess the data set will later be used for supervised learning ).
One problem that I see in your approach (if well understood) is that, at the end, rank will be highly related to adjusted_xy which will bring therefore no interesting supplementary information.
Once this said, I think you surely know how GA works . You have to
define the content of the chromosome : this appears to be your alpha parameter.
define an appropriate fitness function
The fitness function for one individual can be a sum of distances over all examples of the dataset.
As you are dealing with real values , other metaheuristics such as Evolution Strategies (ES) or Simulated Anealing may be more adapted than GA.
As solving optimization problems is cpu intensive, you might eventually consider C or Java instead of Python. (as fitness at least will be interpreted and thus cost a lot).
Alternatively I would look at using Y as a weight to some supervised learning algorithm (if supervised learning is the target).
Let's start by the problem: You consider the fact that some features lead to some of your classes a 'strike'. You are taking a subset of your data and try to establish a rule for the strikes. You do establish one but then you notice that the accuracy of your rule depends on the volume of the dataset that was used to establish the 'strike' rate anyway. You are also commenting on the effect of some samples in biasing your 'strike' estimate.
The immediate answer is that it looks like you have a lot of variation in your data, therefore you will in one way or another need to collect more to account for that variation. (That is, variation that is inherent to the problem).
The fact that in some cases the numbers end up in 'unusable cases' could also be down to outliers. That is, measurements that are 'out of bounds' for a number of reasons and which you would have to find a way to either exclude them or re-adjust them. But this depends a lot on the context of the problem.
'Strike rates' on their own will not help but they are perhaps a step towards the right direction. In any case, you can not compare strike rates if they are coming from samples of different sizes as you have found out too. If your problem is purely to determine the size of your sample so that your results conform to some specific accuracy then i would recommend that you have a look at Statistical Power and how does the sample size affects it. But still, to determine the sample size you need to know a bit more about your data, which brings us back to point #1 about the inherent variation.
Therefore, my attempt to an answer is this: If i have understood your question correctly, you are dealing with a classification problem in which you seek to assign a number of items (patients) to a number of classes (types of cancer) on the evidence of some features (existence of genetic markers, or frequency of their appearance or any other quantity anyway) about these items. But, some features might not exist for all items or, there is a core group of features but there might be some more that do not appear all the time. The question now is, which classifier do you use to achieve this? Logistic regression was mentioned previously and has not helped. Therefore, what i would suggest is going for a Naive Bayesian Classifier. The classifier can be trained with the datasets you have used to derive the 'strike rates' which will provide the a-priori probabilities. When the classifier is 'running' it will be using the features of new data to construct a likelihood that the patient who provided this data should be assigned to each class.
Perhaps the more common example for such a classifier is the spam-email detectors where the likelihood that an email is spam is judged on the existence of specific words in the email (and a suitable training dataset that provides a good starting point of course).
Now, in terms of trying this out practically (and since your post is tagged with python related tags :) ), i would like to recommend Weka. Weka contains a lot of related functionality including bootstrapping that could potentially help you with those differences in the size of the datasets. Although Weka is Java, bindings exist for it in Python too. I would definitely give it a go, the Weka package, book and community are very helpful.
No. Don't use a genetic algorithm.
The bigger the search space of models and parameters, the better your chances of finding a good fit for your data points. But the less this fit will mean. Especially since for some groups your sample sizes are small and therefore the measurements have a high random component to them. This is why, somewhat counterintuitively, it is often actually harder to find a good model for your data after collecting it than before.
You have taken the question to the programmer's lair. This is not the place for it. We solve puzzles.
This is not a puzzle to find the best line through the dots. You are searching for a model that makes sense and brings understanding on the subject matter. A genetic algorithm is very creative at line-through-dot drawing but will bring you little understanding.
Take the problem back where it belongs and ask the statisticians instead.
For a good model should be based on theory behind the data. It'll have to match the points on the right side of the graph, where (if I understand you right) most of the samples are. It'll be able to explain in hard probabilities how likely the deviations on the left are and tell you if they are significant or not.
If you do want to do some programming, I'd suggest you take the simplest linear model, add some random noise, and do a couple simulation runs for a population like your subjects. See if the data looks like the data you're looking at or if it generally 'looks' different, in which case there really is something nonlinear (and possibly interesting) going on on the left.
I once tackled a similar problem (as similar as problems like this ever are), in which there were many classes and high variance in features per data point. I personally used a Random Forest classifier (which I wrote in Java). Since your data is highly variant, and therefore hard to model, you could create multiple forests from different random samples of your large dataset and put a control layer on top to classify data against all the forests, then take the best score. I don't write python, but i found this link
http://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.ensemble.RandomForestClassifier.html
which may give you something to play with.
Following Occam's razor, you must select a simpler model for small dataset and may want to switch to a more complex model as your dataset grows.
There are no [good] statistical tests that show you if a given model, in isolation, is a good predictor of your data. Or rather, a test may tell you that given model fitness is N, but you can never tell what the acceptable value of N is.
Thus, build several models and pick one with better tradeoff of predictive power and simplicity using Akaike information criterion. It has useful properties and not too hard to understand. :)
There are other tests of course, but AIC should get you started.
For a simple test, check out p-value
I want to implement the spell checker which will checks the spelling in a text file and outputs the errors and corrections. I want to create this using python.
But, the main thing is I want to implement that with using genetic algorithm. How can I implement the genetic algorithm for spell checker?
Don't expect my idea here to be perfect or optimal, but it might be a good starting point for you if you decide to go this route. A genetic algorithm may not be the best choice for a spell checker though.
For a genetic algorithm, you need to have a starting population, a way to pass the genes to the "next generation" (crossover), a definite means of creating mutations, and a way of selecting which ones are passed on to the next generation (aka a fitness function). Along with this you'll need, of course, a corpus. You can try the dictionary.com API if it's any good (I've never used it) http://www.programmableweb.com/api/dictionary.com.
For the starting population, you have the horrible issue in that your starting population will be thousands of the exact same word (i.e. ['hello']*1000). From here you can just check if it's a word, then if it is just return True (because grammar checking there vs their vs they're will be a pain in the ass).
To start off, you'll need to rely entirely on mutations to gain diversity, so maybe make mutations more likely if it's an earlier generation, and once the diversity grows the chance of mutation decreases. Mutations can be any of: insert a random letter somewhere, remove a letter somewhere, change a letter somewhere, do more than one of these.
For your fitness function, your best bet will be to use a sequence alignment algorithm. See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_alignment. If you REALLY want to get advanced, try creating phonetic spellings for each word in your population and see if they match anything in the corpus, and increase score based on that (i.e. tho and though would have the same pronunciation). I cannot claim to know anything about that. Bare in mind all of this will slow down your application horribly, so keep that in mind. It might be best to limit your population to 1000-2000.
For your crossover, you should take a few of your samples (early on you may need to use roulette to pick which will be the most fit, but later on you can use tournament for speed purposes). Again you can use the sequence alignment between each "parent", and then decide which letter to pull from each parent (i.e. soeed vs s_eeo can come out to be soeed, seed, seeo, or soeeo).
Don't take this as an expert solution, plus I only put a few minutes of thought into this, but it could be a good start if you decide to use a genetic algorithm.
I have to implement the solution to a 0/1 Knapsack problem with constraints.
My problem will have in most cases few variables (~ 10-20, at most 50).
I recall from university that there are a number of algorithms that in many cases perform better than brute force (I'm thinking, for example, to a branch and bound algorithm).
Since my problem is relative small, I'm wondering if there is an appreciable advantange in terms of efficiency when using a sophisticate solution as opposed to brute force.
If it helps, I'm programming in Python.
You can either use pseudopolynomial algorithm, which uses dynamic programming, if the sum of weights is small enough. You just calculate, whether you can get weight X with first Y items for each X and Y.
This runs in time O(NS), where N is number of items and S is sum of weights.
Another possibility is to use meet-in-the middle approach.
Partition items into two halves and:
For the first half take every possible combination of items (there are 2^(N/2) possible combinations in each half) and store its weight in some set.
For the second half take every possible combination of items and check whether there is a combination in first half with suitable weight.
This should run in O(2^(N/2)) time.
Brute force stuff would work fine for 10 variables, but for, say, 40 you'd get some 1000'000'000'000 possible solutions, which would probably take too long to enumerate. I'd consider approximate algorithms, e.g. the polynomial time algorithm (see, e.g. http://math.mit.edu/~goemans/18434S06/knapsack-katherine.pdf) or use a search algorithm such as branch-and-bound, maybe with an additional heuristic.
Brute force algorithms will always return the best solutions. The problem with them is that in exponential order problems they quickly become not feasible.
If you are guaranteed to have up to 20 variables, you will test no more than 1 million solutions (2^20= 1M). Hence, brute force is feasible and no other algorithm will return a better solution.
Heuristics are great, but they should be used only when we have no exact solution to the problem. There is a great book that might help you: How to Solve it, by Michalewicz.